Abstract
Purpose. The purpose was to determine the status of fifth-year teacher credential candidates with respect to their level of formal reasoning; and to determine possible relationships between reasoning level and the following variables: type of training institution, subject-matter specialization, age, credential, culture, and gender. Methodology. The research was descriptive. The sample was 206 fifth-year graduate students currently enrolled in teacher preparation programs in two state and three private institutions of higher education located in southern California. The dependent variable was level of reasoning operationalized by the Arlin Test of Formal Reasoning, which yields a total score and eight subscores that represent schemas associated with formal operations. The independent variables were age, gender, subject emphasis, credential, and ethnic background. Findings. Fifty-four percent of the candidates consistently demonstrated formal reasoning. An additional 22 percent scored within Arlin's "transitional" range. Rule-governed majors, such as English, scored significantly higher than social-procedural majors such as social studies. Males scored significantly higher than females. The Anglo population scored significantly higher than non-Anglo. Significant differences were found between single-subject and multiple-subject candidates on two subtests, and a trend toward significance on the total score, with single-subject candidates consistently scoring higher. The older candidates outscored the traditional age on only one subtest. There also appeared to be no significant difference between private and public institution students. Conclusions. Formal operational reasoning does not appear to be a given of adulthood, nor related to advanced study, unless that study is in a rule-governed academic field. Gender, predispositions from socioeconomic life experience, and subject areas of study which emphasize higher level hypothetico-deductive reasoning appear the most powerful influence on demonstration of formal reasoning capability. Recommendations. (1) Redesign teacher preparation programs to require complex problem-solving activities. (2) Support participation of females in pursuit of rule-based academic fields at all grade levels. (3) Encourage non-rule-based discipline teachers to include complex formal reasoning challenges in coursework. (4) Develop a higher level reasoning training program for teacher education faculty. (5) Encourage professional development organizations to develop higher level reasoning support materials for professional development.