Abstract
Research problem. Research indicates that one characteristic of an effective leader may be cognitive complexity. Cognitive complexity is the ability to view organizations from more than one frame of reference. The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference between the number and types of frames male and female principals use as managers and as leaders in both public and Catholic schools and to determine if there was a significant difference between the perceived effectiveness of the elementary principal, as measured by teachers, and the number and types of frames an elementary school principal used. Methodology. A descriptive research design was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the variables. One hundred principals and sixty-six teachers were surveyed. The data were analyzed by percentage and the Chi Square Test of Independent Samples was used to test for significant differences at the.05 level where appropriate. Major findings. Most principals used a multiple frame approach to management but less than forty percent used a multiple frame approach to leadership. About two thirds of the principals used the human resource frame as their preferred frame for management and leadership. There was a high level of teacher satisfaction with the principals' management and leadership effectiveness. There were no statistically significant differences established at the.05 level for any of the variables. Conclusions. Elementary principals may have restrictions on their time and energy which impact the use of multiple frames for leadership. The principals' preference for the human resource frame reflects a strong interest in the people in their organizations which may be characteristic of educational leaders. Women showed higher levels of cognitive complexity perhaps reflecting societal demands. Catholic schools' value-oriented environment may explain the higher frequency of Catholic principals using symbolic frames. Teachers feel their principals are effective regardless of the number or type of frames used.